Glossary of Buddhist Terms

Amrita is the divine ambrosia of the gods, which was recovered during the churning of the cosmic ocean. The Sanskrit term amrita means immortal or deathless, and its Tibetan equivalent bdud-rtsi means the nectar (rtsi) that overcomes the demon or mara (bdud) of death. In Tibetan art amrita, as the nectar of immortality, is traditionally depicted as a blue liquid, and in tantric symbolism it may also be identified with semen or alcohol.

The unsurpassed (anuttara) or 'highest yoga tantras' are the most complex and exalted of the four classes of tantra, with their specific emphasis on the twofold division into the 'generation stage or process' (bskyed-rim) and the 'completion or perfection stage' (rdzogs-rim) of meditational practice. The early Nyingma tradition classified the highest or 'inner yoga tantras' into a threefold division of mahayoga, anuyoga and atiyoga, and the later traditions of the Sarma schools classified them into a threefold division of father, mother and non-dual tantras. The main 'father tantras' are Guhyasamaja, Vajrabhairava and Yamari, the main 'mother tantras' are Chakrasamvara, Vajrayogini and Hevajra, and the main 'non-dual tantra' is Kalachakra. The father tantras emphasize the development of method or skilful means, and the mother tantras emphasize the cultivation of wisdom.

An arhant or arhat is one who has attained enlightenment (nirvana), or liberation from the cycle of existence (samsara). This goal of 'personal liberation' is particularly associated with the 'lower scope' of the Hinayana traditions. A group of sixteen arhats are traditionally listed and depicted as the direct lineal disciples of Shakyamuni Buddha. The Sanskrit term arhat means worthy one or elder, and its Tibetan equivalent (dgra-bcom-pa) means foe-destroyer.

The asuras are the demi-gods, titans or 'jealous gods' who live on the lower slopes of Mt Meru. They are always at war with the higher gods over possession of the wish-fulfilling tree, the roots of which grow in the lower asura realm, and the fruits of which blossom in the deva or god realm. As one of the six realms of existence the asura realm is characterized by jealousy, envy and hostility.

Emblem, insignia or ritual implement of a deity

The intermediate state between death and rebirth, which symbolically is believed to last for forty-nine days. There are three phases to the bardo experience. The first is known as the chikai bardo, which is experienced at the time of death. The second is known as the chonyi bardo, which is the main intermediate state when the peaceful and wrathful deities manifest. The third is the sidpa bardo, or the bardo of seeking rebirth.

Bodhichitta, meaning 'mind (chitta) of enlightenment' (bodhi), has two distinct meanings in the Mahayana tradition. The first is known as conventional bodhichitta, which is the altruistic aspiration to attain enlightenment for the benefit of all beings. The second is known as ultimate bodhichitta, which refers to the discriminating awareness or wisdom that directly realizes emptiness. Within the tantric traditions bodhichitta also refers to the subtle 'drops' or 'seminal essences' that are experienced and activated within the psychic energy channels (nadi) of the subtle body. These drops are of two kinds: white drops, which are equated with the male seminal essence of semen; and red drops, which are equated with the female seminal essence of menstrual blood. The white drops predominate at the crown chakra or 'wheel of great bliss', and the red drops predominate at the navel chakra or 'wheel of emanation'. The Kalachakra Tantra is unique in assigning four kinds of drops for each of the main chakras (crown, throat, heart and navel) - with the 'body drop' at the crown giving rise to the waking state, the 'speech or dream drop' at the throat giving rise to the dream state, the 'mind or deep sleep drop' giving rise to the state of deep sleep, and the 'deep awareness drop' at the navel giving rise to the experience of sexual bliss.

The bodhisattva or 'awakening hero' is a spiritual practitioner who has progressed far upon the spiritual path, and one whose essential aim is to lead all beings to enlightenment through his or her altruistic aspiration of bodhichitta. The Mahayana teachings list ten 'grounds' (Skt. bhumi) or stages on the bodhisattva path to full enlightenment, but this number is increased to thirteen levels in some of the tantric literature. Within the Buddhist pantheon of deities the bodhisattvas are the spiritual heirs or 'sons and daughters' of the Five Buddha Families. The most prominent of these spiritual heirs are commonly grouped into the eight male and eight female bodhisattvas, and the sixteen male and sixteen female bodhisattvas. See Eight Close Sons.

Bon is commonly regarded as the pre-Buddhist or 'animist' religion of Tibet, which some of its adherents claim was originally founded by Tonpa Shenrab Miwo in the kingdom of 'Tazik' in the 17th century B.C.E. This native or 'Black Bon' tradition later focused upon the performance of death rituals for the kings of the Tibetan Yarlung Dynasty, who at the time of death were believed to dissolve their physical bodies into a rope or channel of light that ascended into the heavens. The later development of new Yungdrung or 'Swastika Bon' evolved during the eleventh century and its 'Nine Vehicles' were greatly influence by the Dzogchen or 'Great Perfection' practices of the Tibetan Buddhist Nyingma traditions. The 'heartlands' of the Bon tradition is often identified as the kingdom of Shang-Shung, in the region of Mt. Kailash in Western Tibet, but there is no archeological evidence for this, nor have any Bon deity thangkas been discovered before the eleventh century, although the Bon deity pantheon went on to become highly developed. The followers of the Bon tradition are known as Bonpos, and this link below gives a good introduction to the history of this still little known historical tradition.

https://collab.its.virginia.edu/wiki/renaissanceold/Bon%20Background%20Research.html

The Tibetan term chod means 'cutting', and this unique meditation practice was brought to Tibet by the Indian Mahasiddha Phadampa Sangye, who in turn transmitted the teachings to his female Tibetan disciple, Machik Labdron (1055-1152). The chod practice is aimed at severing the self-cherishing attachment to the ego, and employs the powerful visualization technique of cutting up one's own body and offering it to the hungry spirits. The chod practice was often performed at night in the terrifying solitude of an isolated charnel ground.

The 'clear light' is the most refined or subtle level of mind, which is only revealed when the gross levels of mind are no longer active. Although the inner radiance of the clear light is innately present in all beings, it is usually only experienced when the grosser levels of mind have dissolved at the time of death. In the completion stage techniques of the Anuttarayoga tantric systems the practitioner learns how to control all of the vital energies within the subtle body, and to awaken the 'mind of clear light' that resides in the heart as the indestructible drop - thereby simulating the death experience. The tantras make a distinction between the 'mother clear light' of the death experience, and the 'son clear light' that is cultivated through meditation.

Consciousness or 'knowledge-awareness' is categorized into six or eight types. The six consciousness are the five sense consciousnesses (sight, sound, taste, smell, touch), and mental consciousness. The two additional consciousnesses that create the group of eight are, the intrinsic 'store consciousness' (alayavijnana), and the 'deluded consciousness' (klishthamanovijnana).

See Bodhichitta and Indestructible Drop

The eight attires or requisites of extremely wrathful deities - the first three of which are facial attributes, the second three bodily attributes, and the last two limb, head and neck adornments. They are: (1) human cemetery ash applied to the forehead (thal-chen-gyi tshom-bu); (2) fresh spots of blood applied to the 'three bulges' of the nose and cheeks (khrag-gi thig-le); (3) human fat applied to the chin or throat (zhag-gi zo-ris); (4) a flayed elephant-skin stretched across the back (glang-po-che'i pags-pa); (5) the flayed human skin of an enemy draped around the neck (zhing-lpags-kyi yang-gzhi); (6) a tiger-skin loincloth (stag-lpags-kyi sham-thabs); (7) the 'revolting serpent ornament' of the five castes of nagas; (8) the head ornament of a five-skull crown, and the neck ornament of fifty dry skulls or freshly severed heads. The wings of a garuda and a blazing mass of wisdom-fire may also occasionally be counted as the ninth and tenth of a wrathful deity's attires.

The Eight Close Sons are the eight great male Bodhisattvas: (1) Manjushri ('Jam-dpal) or Manjugosha ('Jam-dbyangs); (2) Avalokiteshvara (sPyan-ras-gzigs); (3) Vajrapani (Phyag-na rdo-rje); (4) Maitreya (Byams-pa); (5) Samantabhadra (Kun-tu-bzang-po); (6) Akashagarbha (Nam-mkha'i snying-po); (7) Kshitigarbha (Sa'i snying-po); (8) Nivarana-vishkambhin (sGrib-pa rnam-sel). These eight Bodhisattvas are symbolized by the eight lions that support Shakyamuni Buddha's throne.

See Consciousness

The causes of the eight perils or fears are: (1) fire (anger); (2) water or drowning (attachment); (3) lions (pride); (4) elephants (ignorance); (5) imprisonment or punishment (greed); (6) nagas or poisonous snakes (jealousy); (7) demons or witches (doubt); (8) thieves (false views). Arya Tara and Eleven-faced Avalokiteshvara are the two Bodhisattvas who protect from these eight fears.

The eight great charnel grounds were prominent cemeteries of ancient India, where many Buddhist mendicants and tantric yogins developed deep renunciation and attainments (siddhi). Mythologically they are said to have arisen from the eight dismembered parts of the demon Rudra's body, and were incorporated into the mandala's of many wrathful Vajrayana deities as an outer protection wheel. Each of the eight great charnel grounds has a specific tree, lake, cloud, fire, directional protector, realm protector, naga, Mahasiddha, mountain and stupa, as well as various kinds of corpses, spirits, animals, yogins, yoginis, and knowledge holders. They are commonly listed as the four cardinal cemeteries: (1) East - Very Ferocious (gtum-drag); (2) South - Skeleton Place (keng-rus-can); (3) West - Blazing Vajra (rdo-rje 'bar-ba); (4) North - Dense Thicket (tshan-tshing 'khrigs-pa): And the four inter-cardinal cemeteries: (5) South-east - Cool Grove (bsil-ba'i tshal); (6) South-west - Intense Darkness (mun-pa drag-po); (7) North-west - Sounds of kili, kili (ki-li ki-li'i sgra sgrog-pa); (8) North-east - Ha Ha Laughter (ha-ha rgod-pa).

(1) The liberation which regards outer forms to be a magical display of appearance and emptiness because the apparitions of [one's own] inner form are unimpeded, and which thus regards the mistaken apprehension of the true existence of appearances as a dichotomy of subjective and objective forms. (2) The liberation which regards outer forms without reference to [one's own] inner form, and which thus regards the release from the apprehension of the true existence of outer and inner phenomena not as a subjective form but as an objective form. (3) The liberation which regards all things as emptiness of a single savor, and which thus is a pleasant release from all subjective grasping. (4) The liberation which perceives the space-like significance of mind-as-such, and which thus is the activity field of infinite space. (5) The liberation which realizes all things to be a display of mind and pristine cognition, and which thus is the activity field of infinite consciousness. (6) The liberation which is without the subject-object dichotomy in all respects, and which thus is the activity field of nothing-at-all. (7) The liberation which pacifies the entire range of conceptual elaboration and signs, and which thus is the activity field of neither perception nor non-perception. (8) The liberation which never has objective reference or subjective apprehension with respect to all things of samsara and nirvana and so forth, and which thus is cessation.

(Taken from Guhyagarbha-tantra Ch.1, as translated by Gyurme Dorje, and written in accordance with an oral commentary by Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche).

The sufferings of: (1) birth; (2) illness; (3) old age; (4) death; (5) being separated from that which one likes; (6) encountering that which one dislikes; (7) not attaining that which one desires; (8) losing that which one possesses.

The eight dualistic mundane concerns of gain and loss, fame and disgrace, praise and blame, pleasure and pain.

The eightfold noble path directly evolved from the last of the four noble truths, which the Buddha taught in his first sermon at the deer park in Sarnath - the truth of the path to the cessation of suffering. The eightfold path is the method that leads to the cessation of suffering and to the cultivation of the enlightened attitude of the bodhisattva. This path consists of: (1) correct view or understanding; (2) correct thought or analysis; (3) correct speech; (4) correct action; (5) correct livelihood; (6) correct effort; (7) correct mindfulness; (8) correct concentration or meditative equipoise.

The ultimate nature of reality, which is the total absence of an independent and inherently existing 'self' within both oneself and the whole of phenomenal existence. Emptiness is synonymous with the terms 'ultimate truth', 'actual reality' (dharmata: chos-nyid), and 'suchness' (tathata). The Mahayana sutras list either two, four, sixteen or twenty kinds of emptiness.

The long garlands of fifty freshly severed heads or white skulls worn by wrathful deities symbolize purification of speech as the sixteen vowels and thirty-four consonants of the Sanskrit alphabet or their Tibetan equivalents. In many tantric visualization practices the vowels (ali) and consonants (kali) are generated in circling 'rosaries of speech', with the sixteen 'male' or white vowels circling in a clockwise direction and the thirty-four 'female' or red consonants circling in an anticlockwise direction. These 'mantra rosaries' often correspond to the melting and movement of the white and red bodhichitta drops through the channels or nadi of the subtle body. In certain sadhanas the number of vowels may be increased to forty and the mantra rosaries doubled - with the two circles of white vowels numbering thirty-two, and the two circles of red consonants numbering eighty. These numbers correspond to the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks of an enlightened being.

The sixteen vowels are: A, AA, I, II, U, UU, RI, RII, LI, LII, E, AI, O, AU, AM, AH

The thirty-four consonants are divided into seven phonetic groups: KA, KHA, GA, GHA, NGA; CHA, CHHA, JA, JHA, NYA; DA, THA, TA, DHA, NA; DRA, THRA, TRA, DHRA, NA; BA, PHA, PA, BHA, MA; YA, RA, LA, WA; SHA, KA, SA, HA, KYA

When a long garland (Tib. do-shal) of fifty-one severed heads or skulls are described as being worn by a wrathful deity, it symbolize the purification of the fifty-one mental factors or thought processes. These fifty-one mental factors or 'events' are listed and classified in the early Buddhist abhidharma texts, especially those of the Chittramatra or 'mind only' philosophical school. Only forty-six of the abhidharma's 'defiled thought processes' are listed in the Vaibhashika philosophical school.

The Five Buddhas of the 'Enlightened Families' are commonly, but erroneously known, as the Five Dhyani Buddhas. The conceptual assembly of the Five Buddhas was first revealed in the early tantric texts of the Manjushrimulakalpa and the Guhyasamaja Tantra (circa 6th century AD), and their assembly forms the basis for the geometric mandala plan of a central Buddha and four surrounding directional Buddhas. The Five Enlightened Families represent the purified manifestations of the five aggregates, elements, wisdoms, senses and sensory perceptions. Each of the Five Buddhas is assigned a direction, a color, a consort, a progeny of Bodhisattvas and deities, an animal throne, a specific mudra, and a symbolic emblem or attribute. To this list were added an array of pentad qualities, such as: the five tastes, sounds, precious substances, times of the day, internal and external elements, and seasons (spring, summer, rainy season, autumn and winter). Essentially the Five Buddhas represent the five purified aggregates and the transmutation of the five poisons into the five transcendental Wisdoms of the Five Buddhas.

The five great elements of earth, water, fire, wind (air), and space, which internally correspond to the bodily properties of solidity (bones), fluidity (vital organs and fluids), heat (complexion), energy or movement (breath), and vacuity (consciousness). Symbolically earth is represented by a yellow square (Ratnasambhava - south); water by a white circle (Vairocana - east or center); fire by a red triangle (Amitabha - west); wind by a green bow-shaped hemisphere (Amoghasiddhi - north); and space by a dissolving blue dot or flame-tip (Akshobya - center or east).

The five negative emotions of: (1) ignorance, delusion or confusion; (2) attachment, lust or desire; (3) aversion, hatred or anger; (4) jealousy, envy or worldly ambition; (5) pride. These five emotional defilements are characteristic of the various realms of existence - ignorance (animal realm), attachment (hungry ghost realm), aversion or hatred (hell realm), jealousy (asura realm), pride (god realm). The sixth, human realm is characterized by less extreme manifestations of all five of these dissonant emotions. Sometimes a sixth poison of wrong view is added to this list. The transmutations of these five poisons also correspond to the colors and qualities of the Five Buddhas - ignorance (white Vairocana), attachment (red Amitabha), aversion (blue Akshobya), jealousy (green Amoghasiddhi), and pride (yellow Ratnasambhava).

(1) Miraculous abilities (Tib. rdzu-'phrul gyi mngon-par shes-pa); (2) clairvoyance or 'divine sight' (Tib. lha'i mig-gi mngon-par she-pa); (3) clairaudience or 'divine hearing' (Tib. lha'i rna-ba'i mngon-par shes-pa); (4) knowledge of others minds or 'mind-reading' (Tib. gzhan-gyi sems shes-pa); (5) recollection of former lives (Tib. sngon-gyi gnas rjes-su-dran-pa).

The four most refined states of mental absorption, the attainment of which leads to rebirth in one of the four formless heavenly realms. These four absorptions are known as: (1) limitless space (akashanantya); (2) limitless consciousness (vijnananantya); (3) nothingness (akinchaya); (4) neither cognition nor non-cognition (naivashanjnanasamjna).

The 'four rites' are the functions of an enlightened being's activities, and in Buddhist tantra their application is usually expressed in the fire ritual of homa. These four activities are: (1) pacifying; (2) increasing; (3) subjugating; (4) wrathful activity. Pacifying means purifying and calming through removing hindrances and illnesses. Increasing means enriching or bringing prosperity and longevity. Subjugating means influencing or attracting power to give control over situations. Wrathful, destructive or forceful activity means annihilating confusion and obstacles. A fifth rite of spontaneous or all-purpose activity is sometimes added to this list when it corresponds to the Five Buddha Families.

The fourfold division of the deity-yoga practices of the Vajrayana, which are classified into (1) kriyatantra (Tib. bya-rgyud) or 'action tantra'- which mainly emphasize external activities and ritual practices; (2) caryatantra (Tib. spyod-rgyud) or 'performance tantra' - with an emphasis on both external ritual practices and internal visualization practices; (3) yogatantra (Tib.rnal-'byor-rgyud) or 'union tantra' - which mainly emphasize internal yoga or meditation practices; (4) anuttarayogatantra (Tib. rnal-'byor bla-med-pa'i rgyud) or 'highest yoga tantra' - which place the greatest emphasis on the internal visualization practices of the 'generation and completion stages'.

Also known as the four Contemplations, these four topics are meditated upon during the preliminary practices (sngon-'gro) in order to overcome attachment and develop a strong spiritual foundation. The first is contemplation on this precious human birth. The second is reflection upon death and impermanence. The third is contemplation on karma as the law of cause and effect. And the fourth is contemplation upon the sufferings and miseries of cyclic existence or samsara.

The four concentrations or samadhis are the four stages of meditative absorption that can lead to a rebirth in the highest form realms of the gods. These four concentrations are characterized by an absence of: (1) physical pain or discomfort; (2) mental or emotional unhappiness; (3) pleasurable excitement; (4) mundane experiences of joy.

The methods through which one can approach realization: (1) emptiness; (2) signlessness or absence of attributes; (3) wishlessness or lack of aspiration; (4) the ultimate emptiness or lack of composition of all phenomena.

The four material elements of earth, water, fire, and wind (air), which internally correspond to the bodily properties of solidity, fluidity, warmth, and energy. See five elements.

The four voids or emptinesses are: (1) emptiness (sunya); (2) highest emptiness (atisunya); (3) great emptiness (mahasunya); (4) universal emptiness (sarvasunya). In the tantric systems these four emptinesses correspond to: (1) the emptiness of self or body; (2) the emptiness of mind; (3) the emptiness of the contents of mind; (4) the emptiness of all phenomena. The four emptinesses may also be classified as: (1) the emptiness of things; (2) the emptiness of non-things; (3) the emptiness of nature; (4) the emptiness of transcendental nature. See also emptiness, two emptinesses, four emptinesses, and sixteen emptinesses.

Also known as the four Divine States of mind or the 'Four Abodes of Brahma' (catur-brahma-vihara; tshangs-pa'i gnas-pa bzhi). The four immeasurables are compassion, love, sympathetic joy, and equanimity. Immeasurable compassion (karuna) is the altruistic wish that all beings be free from suffering. Immeasurable love (maitri), or loving kindness, is the wish that all beings enjoy happiness. Immeasurable joy (mudita) is the wish that all beings abide in the bliss of liberation. Immeasurable equanimity (upeksha) is the wish that all beings may abandon attachment and aversion, and perceive each other as equals.

The 'four joys of tantra' are experienced when the white bodhichitta drop ascends from the lowest chakra at the sex-tip to the navel, heart, throat, and crown chakras, causing an increasing experience of great bliss to be generated. These four joys are: (1) joy (ananda); (2) perfect joy (paramananda); (3) joy of cessation (viramananda); (4) innate joy (sahajananda). The four joys are given a metaphorical sexual interpretation in the Hevajra Tantra, with the first 'joy' being the contact of the lotus and vajra (vagina and penis), the second 'perfect joy' being the desire for more, the third 'joy of cessation' being the release from the urge of passion after orgasm, and the fourth 'innate joy' being the dreamy state of fulfillment or satisfaction that arises from the preceding joy. Eight and sixteen joys may also be enumerated in the tantras: with eight joys arising through the ascent and descent of the white bodhichitta drop through the four main chakras, and sixteen joys arising through the ascent and descent of both the white and red bodhichitta drops.

Mara - meaning 'the destroyer or tempter' - was the demonic 'evil one' who attempted to obstruct the Buddha's enlightenment under the bodhi-tree and was vanquished in the process. Traditionally Mara was identified with Kamadeva - the Vedic god of love and desire, and the king of the gods in the highest celestial desire realm - and in this form he was recognized as Devaputra Mara or the 'mara of the son of god', a title that has resonance with Satan's temptation of Jesus. In the early Buddhist sutras Mara's army was described as having four divisions, and in later Mahayana Buddhism these four divisions were personified as the four maras and represented in the forms of Hindu gods. The first of these four maras is Skandha Mara (phung-po'i bdud) - the demon of the five aggregates (form, feeling, perception, motivation, consciousness), who appears in the form of yellow Brahma. The second is Klesha Mara (nyong-mongs-pa'i bdud) - the demon of emotional defilements, who appears in the form of white Vishnu. The third is Mrtyu Mara ('shi-bdag-gi bdud) - the demon of death, who appears in the form of blue Maheshvara. The fourth is Devaputra Mara (lha'i bu'i bdud) - the 'son of god' and the personification of Mara as the demon of divine pride and lust, who appears in the form of black Indra. They may also be depicted in the forms of Brahma (Skandha Mara), Yaksha (Klesha Mara), Yama (Mrtyu Mara), and Indra (Devaputra Mara). As a personification of Mara himself, Devaputra Mara may also be represented in the red form of Kamadeva. Iconographically the four maras may be depicted as being crushed under the feet of deities such as Hevajra and Vajrabhairava, or the blood of the four maras may appear in the skull-cups of many wrathful deities. In Vajrayana Buddhism the armies of Mara represent all of the mental and emotional delusions that arise as 'demonic enemies or fiends', and the function of many of the weapons held by Vajrayana deities are to slay, crush, pierce, cut and sever the negative or evil influences of the four maras.

The teaching upon the Four Noble Truths was the first discourse given by Shakyamuni Buddha in the deer-park at Sarnath. The first truth is the truth of suffering; the second the truth of its origin; the third the truth of its cessation; and the fourth the truth of the path leading to its cessation. See Eightfold Noble Path.

The obscurations of: (1) body; (2) speech; (3) mind; (4) the subtle and collective obscurations of body, speech and mind.

The four methods by which a Bodhisattva attracts disciples: (1) through generosity; (2) through wise and eloquent speech; (3) through teaching in accordance with the disciple's needs; (4) through putting into practice what one teaches.

In the Anuttarayogatantra practices 'great bliss' refers to the ecstatic experience of joyful bliss that arises when the practitioner enters into union with a partner or consort - either visualized or actual. When this experience of ecstatic bliss is simultaneously generated with a direct experience of emptiness, the resulting state is known as the 'union of great bliss and emptiness'.

The homa ritual or 'fire-puja' is traditionally performed at the end of a long tantric retreat, in order to purify any transgressions that may have arisen during the retreat. It may also be performed for a specific religious or secular purpose, such as removing obstacles or increasing wealth. The homa ritual involves an invocation to the fire-god Agni, and the offering of various substances as burnt offerings into the sacred fire, such as woods, grasses, grains, seeds, honey and ghee. The hearths or fire-pits that are specifically constructed for these rituals are generally of four kinds, and correspond to the four activities or rites of tantra. A circular white fire-hearth is employed for pacifying rituals. A square yellow fire-hearth is employed for rituals of increase. A bow-shaped red fire-hearth is employed for subjugating rites. A triangular black fire-hearth is employed for wrathful or destructive activities.

In the 'completion stage' of the Highest Yoga Tantras the mind of the practitioner arises from the stage of 'clear light' in the transformed and white 'illusory body' of the particular yidam deity. The attainment of this illusory body - whereby the mind becomes completely identified with the deity's pure light form or body - is particularly emphasized in the 'father tantras' cultivation of method or skilful means; whereas attainment of the clear light is particularly emphasized in the 'mother tantras' cultivation of wisdom or discriminating awareness. In Vajrayana Buddhism there are said to be seven types of illusory body: (1) the symbolic; (2) the apparitional; (3) the dream body; (4) the bardo body of the intermediate state between death and rebirth; (5) the body of inner radiance; (6) the emanation body; (7) the body of pristine awareness.

The indestructible drop is formed from the essence of the white and red bodhichitta drops at conception from the fertile semen and menstrual blood of our parents. This drop contains the most subtle mind of the incarnating consciousness of the being seeking rebirth, and this drop remains unchanged at the heart center throughout life. At the time of death the indestructible drop 'melts' and opens, allowing the most subtle mind and the 'wind' upon which it rides to travel on to its next incarnation.

The practices of method or skilful means refer to the accumulation of merit, which is cultivated through the five 'male' perfections of generosity, moral conduct, patience, effort and meditative concentration. The perfection of skilful means is also included as one of the ten perfections, where it implies the dedication of one's merit for the benefit of all beings. In the 'father tantra' practices of the anuttarayogatantras the development of skilful means also refers to the sexual techniques (sbyor-ba), which are activated through the psychic energy channels, winds and drops. As a 'male' symbol the attributes of 'method' are held in the right hands of deities.

The early Nyingma tradition of Tibetan Buddhism classifies the entire Buddhist path into nine progressive 'vehicles' or yanas, which are based on the three 'sutra vehicles', the three 'outer tantra' vehicles, and the three 'inner tantra' vehicles. These nine yanas are: (1) Shravaka or 'pious listeners'; (2) Pratyekabuddha or 'solitary realisers'; (3) Bodhisattva or 'spiritual heroes'; (4) Kriyatantra or 'action tantra'; (5) Caryatantra or 'performance tantra'; (6) Yogatantra or 'union tantra'; (7) Mahayoga or the 'generation stage' practices; (8) Anuyoga or the 'completion stage' practices; (9) Atiyoga or the 'great perfection' transmission of Dzogchen (rdzogs-pa chen-po).

The Nyingma or 'ancient translation school' (snga-'gyur rnying-ma) is the oldest of the four main Buddhist traditions of Tibet. It dates back to the eighth century when teachers such as Padmasambhava and Vimalamitra first introduced the Buddhist teachings from India. The other three main Buddhist schools of Tibet; Kagyu (bKa- brgyud), Sakya (Sa-skya), and Kadam (bKa' gdams), are known as the Sarma (gsar-ma) or 'new translation schools' (gsang-sngags gsar-ma). The Kadam tradition later evolved into the Gelug (dGe-lugs) or 'New translation' school, which was founded by Tsong Khapa (1357-1419). The Nyingma, Kagyu and Sakya schools are often identified as the 'red hats', and the Gelug school as the 'yellow hats'.

The seven limbed practice is used to purify defilements and accumulating merit, and consists of: (1) prostrations; (2) offerings; (3) confessing non-virtuous actions; (4) rejoicing in the virtuous actions of oneself and others; (5) requesting the Buddhas to turn the wheel of dharma; (6) requesting the Buddhas to remain in this world; (7) dedication of merit.

The seven spiritual wealths or noble treasures are: (1) faith or self-confidence; (2) morality or ethical discipline; (3) generosity; (4) learning; (5) conscientious behavior; (6) modesty; (7) wisdom. These seven great wealths accompany the birth of the chakravartin.

The six transcendent perfections are: (1) generosity; (2) morality or ethical discipline; (3) patience; (4) joyful effort or perseverance; (5) meditative concentration; (6) wisdom or discriminating awareness. The first five of these perfections are the 'male' perfections of method or skilful means, and constitute the accumulation of merit (punya). The last perfection of wisdom is 'female', and constitutes the accumulation of pristine cognition (jnana).

The six realms of samsara or cyclic existence are graphically illustrated in the Wheel of Life painting. Birth into one of these six realms is characterized by a particular mental state or poison: (1) the god or deva realm (pride); (2) the jealous demi-god or asura realm (jealousy); (3) the human realm (desire, or all five poisons); (4) the animal realm (ignorance or delusion); (5) the hungry ghosts or pretas (greed and miserliness); (6) the hell realms (anger and hatred). The first three realms are considered favorable, and the last three miserable. Sometimes only five realms are listed, with the devas and asuras forming a single realm in the Wheel of Life.

The Prajnaparamita-sutras list sixteen categories of emptiness (shunyata) which may be applied to the different manifestations of phenomena: (1) emptiness of internal entities or phenomena (nang stong-pa-nyid); (2) emptiness of external entities or phenomena (phyi stong-pa-nyid); (3) emptiness of both internal and external phenomena (phyi-nang gnyis-ka stong-pa-nyid); (4) voidness or the emptiness of emptiness (stong-pa-nyid stong-pa-nyid); (5) great emptiness, of everything in the ten directions (chen-po stong-pa-nyid); (6) ultimate emptiness, of nirvana and of the third noble truth of cessation (don-dam-pa stong-pa-nyid); (7) emptiness of conditioned phenomena ('du-byas stong-pa-nyid); (8) emptiness of unconditioned phenomena ('du-ma-byas stong-pa-nyid); (9) emptiness of that which is beyond the extremes of interdependent origination (mtha'-las 'das-pa'i stong-pa-nyid); (10) emptiness of that which has neither beginning nor end, of samsara or cyclic existence (thog-ma-dang mtha'-ma med-pa stong-pa-nyid); (11) emptiness of that which is not to be abandoned, the Mahayana path (dor-ba med-pa stong-pa-nyid): (12) emptiness of phenomena's self-nature (rang-bzhin stong-pa-nyid); (13) emptiness of all phenomena or composite things (chos thams-cad stong-pa-nyid); (14) emptiness of definition or self-defining characteristics (rang mtshan-nyid stong-pa-nyid); (15) emptiness of the non-referential, of the past, present and future (mi-dmigs-pa stong-pa-nyid); (16) emptiness of the absence of substantiality, of the non-true existence of phenomena (dngos-po med-pa'i stong-pa-nyid). In terms of emptiness these sixteen categories are all essentially the same, namely the ultimate voidness of any internal self-identity or external phenomena. Lists of two, four, eight, sixteen and twenty emptinesses are also found in other Mahayana sutras.

The four cardinal directions, the four inter-cardinal directions, the zenith and nadir. The center may also be included to create an eleventh direction, as in the symbolism of Eleven-faced Avalokiteshvara.

(1) Harming or killing; (2) stealing; (3) sexual misconduct, (three non-virtues of body) (4) lying; (5) divisive or slanderous speech; (6) cursing or harsh speech; (7) gossip or idle speech, (four non-virtues of speech); (8) covetous thought; (9) malicious thoughts; (10) bigoted thoughts or distorted views, (three non-virtues of mind). The ten virtues (Skt. dasakusalani; Tib. dge-ba bcu) are refraining from the ten non-virtues listed above.

(1) Generosity; (2) moral conduct; (3) patience; (4) joyful effort; (5) meditative concentration; (6) wisdom or discriminating awareness; (7) skilful means; (8) power; (9) aspiration or inner strength; (10) pure awareness or pristine cognition. See Six Perfections.

The ten powers of a Buddha, or of a Bodhisattva who has reached the 'eighth stage' (astabhumi) of the Bodhisattva path. These ten powers are: (1) power over life - prolonging life (Tib. tshe la dbang-ba); (2) power over mind - ability to enter meditative absorption (samadhi) at will (Tib. sems la dbang-ba); (3) power over matter - ability to bestow valuable necessities upon all beings (Tib. yo-byad la dbang-ba); (4) power over karma - ability to choose one's place, time and manner of birth etc. (Tib. las la dbang-ba); (5) power over birth - ability to be born in a sensual realm without departing from concentration (Tib. skye-ba la dbang-ba); (6) power over aspiration or creative imagination (Tib. mos-pa la dbang-ba) - ability to perform the Eight Great Siddhi; (7) power over resolution or prayer - ability to fulfill one's own and others intents (Tib. smon-lam la dbang-ba); (8) power over miracles - ability to inspire beings through the performance of miracles (Tib. rdzu-'phrul la dbang-ba); (9) power over knowledge - perfect understanding of all dharmas (Tib. ye-shes la dbang-ba); (10) power over dharma or presentation - ability to inspire all beings by a single discourse upon the dharma (Tib. chos la dbang-ba).

The thirty-seven aspects or 'factors of Buddhahood' are the sequentially practices that lead along the path to enlightenment. In the Hinayana traditions these thirty-seven factors lead to the attainment of Arhatship, and in the Mahayana traditions they lead through the ten Bodhisattva levels or 'grounds' (Skt. bhumi; Tib. sa) to the attainment of full enlightenment or Buddhahood. The thirty-seven aspects are grouped into seven main categories, which simultaneously correspond to the 'five paths to Buddhahood'. These seven main categories are: (1) the four foundations of mindfulness; (2) the four renunciations or right efforts; (3) the four 'legs' or supports of miraculous power; (4) the five spiritual faculties; (5) the five spiritual powers; (6) the seven factors of enlightenment; (7) the eightfold noble path.

(1) The four foundations of mindfulness or 'close contemplations' are: (1) analysis of our body (kaya) or physical existence, which leads to an understanding of the first noble truth of suffering; (2) of our emotions or feelings (vedana), which leads to an understanding of the second noble truth of the cause of suffering; (3) of our mind or intellect (chitta), which leads to an understanding of the third noble truth of the cessation of suffering; (4) of our perception of reality (dharma), which leads to an understanding of the fourth noble truth of the path to the cessation of suffering

(2) The four renunciations or 'states of abandonment' are: (1) to cultivate only virtuous actions and qualities that one has not yet developed; (2) to increase the virtues that one has already developed; (3) to cease the increase of one's non-virtuous actions and qualities; (4) to prevent the development of non-virtuous actions and qualities that one has not yet acquired.

(3) The four legs of miraculous activity are states of single-pointed concentration that lead to the attainment of miraculous powers, which enable one to benefit all beings. These 'legs' are attained through: (1) the intention or strong desire to attain mental quiescence; (2) the perseverance of mental intellect that is directed towards this attainment; (3) the contemplation on the methods of achieving it; (4) the discrimination on how to utilize it.

(4) The five spiritual or moral faculties are directed towards a deep realization of the four noble truths. They are: (1) faith or confidence (shraddha) in the four noble truths; (2) perseverance or effort (virya) in their realization; (3) mindfulness or inspection (smrti) of them; (4) concentration or mental absorption (samadhi) upon them; (5) the discriminating awareness or wisdom (prajna) of their individual aspects.

(5) The five spiritual or 'unshakable' powers are the full realizations that develop through the five moral faculties listed above: (1) the power of faith; (2) perseverance; (3) mindfulness; (4) contemplation; (5) wisdom; which overcome the five meditative hindrances of: (1) lack of faith or disbelief; (2) laziness; (3) forgetfulness; (4) distraction; (5) ignorance or lack of wisdom.

(6) The seven factors or limbs of enlightenment (sapta-bodhyanga) are the aspects of wisdom-awareness that overcome the delusions or hindrances on the path to enlightenment. They are: (1) perfect mindfulness; (2) perfect discrimination of phenomena: (3) perfect effort or energy; (4) perfect joy; (5) perfect versatility or flexibility; (6) perfect single-pointed concentration; (7) perfect equanimity.

(7) The eightfold noble path, which overcome the final hindrances on the path to enlightenment. They are: (1) correct or right view; (2) right aspiration; (3) right speech; (4) right action; (5) right livelihood; (6) right effort; (7) right mindfulness; (8) right single-minded concentration.

The 'heaven of the thirty-three' is located in the desire realm of the mundane or 'earth dwelling' gods, and it is this realm that is commonly depicted as the uppermost realm in the Wheel of Life painting. The term 'thirty-three' derives from this heaven being the abode of the great sky god Indra and his thirty-two subsidiary gods or ministers. In the Indian traditions this number is sometimes multiplied by a million to correspond to the vast pantheon of different gods, which is said to number thirty-three million.

A text composed by the Tibetan master Ngulchu Thogme Zangpo, which covers a series of thirty-seven practices or aspects upon the Bodhisattva path to complete enlightenment.

The three doors or gateways through which one may approach liberation. (1) The emptiness of cause (emptiness); (2) the emptiness of effect (lack of aspiration); (3) the emptiness of all phenomena (lack of attribution).

Body, speech and mind - which correspond to the trinity of thought (mind), word (speech), and deed (body). The aspect of body is symbolized by the white syllable Om at the crown of the head, the aspect of speech by the red syllable A at the throat, and the aspect of mind by the blue syllable Hum at the heart.

The three primary negative emotions of attachment, aversion and ignorance, which are graphically represented at the central hub of the Wheel of Life painting; (1) a black pig, symbolizing ignorance or delusion; (2) a red cockerel, symbolizing attachment or lust; (3) a green snake, symbolizing hatred or aversion. These three creatures bite each other's tails, symbolizing that primordial ignorance gives rise to attachment, which in turn gives rise to aversion, which in turn gives rise to further ignorance. See Five Poisons.

The three essential aspects on the path to enlightenment: (1) renunciation; (2) bodhichitta or compassion; (3) wisdom or the correct view of emptiness.

Past, present, and future.

The purified body, speech and mind of all Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.

Buddhist cosmology divides samsara or cyclic existence into three realms: (1) the desire realm (Skt. kamadhatu; Tib. 'dod-khams); (2) the form realm (Skt. rupadhatu; Tib. gzugs-khams); (3) the formless realm (Skt. arupadhatu; Tib. gzugs-med-khams). The desire realm encompasses beings of the six realms of cyclic existence - the hell, hungry ghost (preta), animal, human, and demi-god (asura) realms, and six lower heavens of the gods - which consist of the two heavens of the 'earth-dwelling gods' (the heaven of the four great guardian kings, and the heaven of the 'thirty-three'), and the four heavens of the 'sky-dwelling gods'. The form realm consists of seventeen or eighteen higher realms of beatific existence that are characterized by progressively subtle levels of consciousness, which have arisen from realization of one or more of the 'four concentrations' in a previous existence. The formless realm consists of four levels of bodiless existence where the individuals exist as pure consciousness, and which have arisen from the attainment of one or more of the 'four absorptions' in a previous existence. The term 'three worlds' may also refer to the three levels (sa gsum) or realms of conventional existence: (1) above the earth (sa bla), as the level or realm of the gods or deva; (2) on the earth (sa steng), as the level or realm of human existence; (3) below the earth (sa 'og), as the level or realm of the naga serpents. In the Vedic tradition the three realms (Skt. trailokya) referred to the divine, human, and infernal realms.

The torana is an archway or gateway. As the 'six-ornament' enlightenment throne of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, its upper arc is traditionally decorated with the motifs or mythological creatures, with a garuda or kirtimukha at its top, and a pair of symmetrical nagas and makaras below. Its sides are usually decorated with the motifs of a jeweled crossbar, a pair of young gods or devas, two hybrid antelopes or sharabha, two lions and two elephants. Exquisite carved wood or stone toranas can still be found in the Kathmandu valley on Nepal. In south Indian architecture the torana often takes the form of an elaborately carved gateway known as a gopura.

The twelve links in the chain of dependant arising is one of the most important doctrines on the Buddhist view of causation and interdependence - showing how suffering arises from primordial ignorance and its motivational actions. These twelve links are graphically depicted in the outer circle of the Buddhist painting of the 'Wheel of Life' (Skt. bhavachakra; Tib. srid-pa'i 'khor-lo):

(1) Primordial ignorance (avidya), represented by a blind man. (2) Conditioned or formative actions (samskara), as a potter making pots. (3) Consciousness (vijnana), as a playful monkey attracted by objects. (4) Name and form (namarupa), as two men in a boat. (5) The five sense bases and the mind (ayatana), as a house with five windows and a door. (6) Contact (sparsha) and its desire for an object, as a couple kissing or making love. (7) Sensation (vedana) or desire giving rise to feelings of pleasure and pain, as a man blinded by an arrow in one eye. (8) Craving (trishna) or thirst, as a man drinking alcohol. (9) Grasping (adana), as a monkey plucking all the fruit from a tree. (10) Becoming (bhava) or maturing towards rebirth, as a pregnant woman or an egg-roosting hen. (11) Birth (jati) leading to endless rebirth, as a woman giving birth. (12) Ageing and death (jaramarana) leading to endless cycles of life and death, as an old man walking with a stick, and a corpse being carried to a cemetery.

(1) The accumulation of merit (bsod-nams), which is generated through the five 'method' perfections of generosity, morality, patience, effort, and meditative concentration; (2) the accumulation of wisdom or pristine cognition (ye-shes), which is cultivated through the sixth 'wisdom' perfection of wisdom.

(1) The emptiness of inherent existence in conditioned 'things' (the five aggregates); (2) the emptiness of all unconditioned or 'non-things'.

The conventional, relative or 'deceptive' truth (Skt. samvritisatya; Tib. kun-rdzob bden-pa), which is the apparent truth of the phenomenal world experienced through ordinary perception, or the way in which phenomena appear to exist and function. And the absolute or ultimate truth (Skt. paramarthasatya; Tib. don-dam bden-pa), which is the actual truth of emptiness experienced directly through enlightened wisdom, or the way in which phenomena actually exist.

The two obscurations are the factors that veil our enlightened Buddha-nature - the obscuration of emotional defilements (Skt. kleshavarana; Tib. nyon-mongs-sgrib), and the obscuration of objective knowledge (Skt. jneyavarana; Tib. shes-bya-sgrib). The first is also known as the 'obscuration to liberation', and is characterized by negative emotions, thoughts, and emotional imprints, such as anger, desire, jealousy and envy. The second is also known as the 'obscuration to knowledge', and is characterized by ignorance.

The Wheel of Life painting graphically illustrates the Buddhist teachings on impermanence, suffering, karma, death and rebirth into one of the six realms of cyclic existence, and the twelve links of dependent origination. At the central hub of the painting are a black pig, a red cockerel, and a green snake, which bite each other's tails and symbolize the three primary poisons of ignorance, desire, and aversion. The next circle of the painting depicts beings ascending to the three upper realms on its right white segment, and beings falling to the three lower realms on its left dark segment. The third circle is divided by spokes into either five or six sections, with the three lower realms of animals, hungry ghosts (preta), and the various hell realms in the lower segment, and the three upper realms of humans, demi-gods (asura), and gods (deva) in the upper two or three segments. The outer circle of the wheel depicts in a clockwise sequence twelve metaphorical images of the twelve links of dependent origination. The wheel itself is held in the claws of Yama, the lord of death - or by a red demon, symbolizing impermanence - who bites and consumes the wheel with his deadly fangs. Above and outside of this wheel stands the form of Shakyamuni Buddha, who raises his right arm to point towards the moon as a symbol of the Buddhist teachings that lead to liberation from the endless wheel of cyclic existence. The image of the Wheel of Existence, Becoming or Life, is of great antiquity and metaphorically illustrates the teachings of the Buddha. See Twelve Links of Dependent Origination, Six Realms and Three poisons.

Wisdom or 'discriminating awareness' is perhaps best defined as the intelligence or ability to understand all phenomena correctly in terms of emptiness, or as a direct insight into the true nature of reality (emptiness). The Sanskrit term jnana (Tib. ye-shes) may also be used to refer to wisdom or knowledge, and this term is perhaps best defined as the 'pristine cognition' or 'pure and uncorrupted knowledge and intuition' of the fully enlightened mind. Wisdom or prajna has always been regarded as a 'feminine' quality, with the female consort of a male deity being known as 'prajna'. As the feminine quality of emptiness - as opposed to the male quality of form - the left hand gestures and attributes of deities commonly reveal their wisdom aspects. See Method, Mother tantra, Prajnaparamita.

The yojana or 'league' is a large unit of ancient Indian measure, and derives from the distance that an ox cart could comfortably travel without being unyoked (yojana). In the early abhidharma system a yojana equaled 4,000 fathoms or approximately four and a half miles, but in the later Kalachakra system the yojana was doubled to approximate to nine miles. The Kalachakra Tantra lists the various units of measure: "Eight subtle particles are equal to one particle. Eight particles are equal to the tip of a fine hair. Eight fine hair tips are equal to a mustard seed. Eight mustard seeds are equal to a louse. Eight lice are equal to a barleycorn. Eight barleycorns are equal to a finger-width (angula). Twenty-four finger-widths are equal to a cubit (hasta). Four cubits are equal to a fathom or 'bow' (dhanus). Two thousand bows are equal to an 'ear-shot'. And four ear-shots are equal to one league (yojana)."